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Hasan Sabbah, prominent Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榠聽and founder of the medieval Nizari Isma鈥榠li state (b.听QumA historic city in Iran to the south of Tehran. It is considered by many Shi鈥榠 Muslims as Iran鈥檚 second holiest city after Mashhad. Qum is a leading centre of…, mid-440s AH/1050s CE, d.听AlamutFortress of the Nizari Ismailis in northern Iran, which fell to the Mongols in 654 AH/1256 CE.. 518 AH/1124 CE). Little information is available on the early life of Hasan Sabbah, who was referred to as聽厂补测测颈诲苍补听(our master) by his contemporary Nizari lsmailis. The colourful story, according to which Hasan, Nizam al Mulk, and 鈥楿mar Khayyam had made a pact when they were classmates in their youth under the same master at Nishapur, should be dismissed as a legend (see Rashid聽al-Din, pp. 110-12; Kashani, pp. 146-48; Mirkhand [Tehran], IV. pp. 199-204; Bowen, 1931, pp. 771-82). The events of Hasan鈥檚 career as the first ruler of聽Alamut聽are better documented; these events were recorded in the聽Sargudhasht-i sayyidna, the first part of which may have been autobiographical. Although this chronicle, which marked the initiation of a Nizari tradition of historiography in Persia during the聽Alamut聽period, has not survived, it was used extensively by Juwayni, Rashid聽al-Din聽and Abu鈥檒-Qasim Kashani, who are the chief authorities on Hasan鈥檚 life and career (see Daftary, 1992, pp. 91-97).

Hasan Sabbah was born in聽Qum聽into a Twelver Shi鈥榠 family. His father, 鈥楢li b. Muhammad b. Ja鈥榝ar al-Sabbah al-Himyari, a Kufan claiming Himyari Yemeni origins, had migrated from Kufa to聽Qum. Subsequently, the Sabbah family settled down in Ray, where the youthful Hasan received his early religious education (in the Twelver Shi鈥榠 tradition). It was at Ray, a centre of Isma鈥榠li activities since the middle of the 3rd AH/9th CE century, that Hasan was introduced to their teachings by Amira Zarrab, a local Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榠. Later, Hasan learnt more about Isma鈥榠li doctrines from Abu Nasr Sarraj and other聽诲补鈥榠s聽in Ray, and consequently, after having just turned seventeen, Hasan converted to Isma鈥榠lism and took the oath of allegiance (鈥榓丑诲) to the Isma鈥榠li聽imam聽of the time, the Fatimid聽Caliph聽al-Mustansir (427-87 AH/1036-94 CE).

In Ramadan 464 AH /May-June 1072 CE, the newly initiated Hasan managed to impress 鈥楢bd al-Malik b. 鈥楢ttash, the chief Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榠聽in the聽Saljuq聽territories, to such an extent that he appointed him to a position in the聽诲补鈥榳补听(mission) organisation. In 467 AH/1074-75

CE, Hasan accompanied Ibn 鈥楢ttash to Isfahan, the secret headquarters of the Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榳补听in Persia, where he stayed until 469 AH /1076-77 CE, when, on instructions from Ibn 鈥楢ttash, he left for Cairo to further his Isma鈥榠li education. Hasan reached Egypt in Safar 471 AH/August 1078 CE and spent three years there, first in Cairo and then in Alexandria, before returning to Isfahan. Almost nothing is known about Hasan鈥檚 experiences in Egypt. According to the lost Nizari chronicles used by Persian historians, while in Egypt he clashed with the Fatimid聽vizier聽Badr al-Jamali, who at that time had just succeeded al-Mu鈥檃yyad fi鈥檒-Din al-Shirazi as the chief聽诲补鈥榠聽(诲补鈥榠聽al-du鈥榓t). Whether or not this conflict revolved around Hasan鈥檚 support for Nizar,聽Imam聽al-Mustansir鈥檚 heir-designate, who was eventually deprived of succession to the Fatimid聽caliphate聽by Badr al-Jamali鈥檚 own son and successor al-Afdal, Hasan was eventually banished from Egypt on Badr鈥檚 instructions. He returned to Isfahan in Dhu鈥檒-hijja 473 AH /June 1081 CE.

Hasan鈥檚 subsequent travels over several years in the service of the聽诲补鈥榳补听and to evaluate the military strength of the Saljuqs were limited to different localities in Persia. It was during this period that he formulated his own revolutionary strategy against the Saljuqs. By around 480 AH/1087 CE, Hasan was concentrating his efforts on the region of聽DaylamThe highlands in the province of Gilan, near the Caspian Sea in northern Iran., which was a stronghold of聽厂丑颈鈥榠蝉尘See Shi鈥榓., remote from the centres of聽Saljuq聽control. He targeted for his headquarters the fortress of聽Alamut, located in the central Elburz Mountains of the Rudbar region. Hasan, who soon became the聽诲补鈥榠聽of聽Daylam, reinvigorated the聽诲补鈥榳补听activities in northern Persia and finally seized聽Alamut聽in 483 AH/1090 CE by a clever plan of infiltration. This marked the foundation of what was to become the Nizari Isma鈥榠li state of Persia. Hasan made the fortress impregnable, and improved the cultivation and irrigation systems of the聽Alamut聽valley to make it self-sufficient in food production. Similar policies were later implemented in connection with other major Isma鈥榠li strongholds. Hasan also established an important library at聽Alamut, whose collections of manuscripts and scientific instruments had grown to impressive proportions by the time the Mongols destroyed the fortress in 654 AH/1256 CE.

Hasan Sabbah seems to have had a complex set of religio-political motives for his revolt against the Saljuqs. As Shi鈥榠 Isma鈥榠li, he could not have tolerated the ardently Sunni聽Saljuq聽Turks鈥� hostility towards聽厂丑颈鈥榠蝉尘聽and their aim to uproot the Fatimid聽caliphateThe Muslim political institution or state centred around the caliph, which came to an end, historically, in 1924 with the disappearance of the Ottoman Empire.. Hasan鈥檚 revolt was perhaps also an expression of the Persians鈥� resentment over the alien rule of the聽Saljuq聽Turks, since they accounted for a large proportion of the early popular support he received. It was also as an assertion of his ethnic identity that Hasan took the unprecedented step of replacing Arabic with Persian as the religious language of the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽of Persia.

After firmly establishing himself at聽Alamut, Hasan extended his influence in the region by winning more converts, taking over more strongholds in Rudbar, and building new fortresses wherever he found a suitable location.听Alamut聽was soon raided by the forces of the nearest聽Saljuq聽amir, marking the initiation of an endless series of Saljuq-Isma鈥榠li military clashes. In 484 AH/1091 CE, Hasan sent the聽诲补鈥榠聽Husayn Qa鈥檌ni to his native land of Quhistan in southeastern聽Khurasan聽to mobilise support there. The early success of the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽of Quhistan soon erupted into a popular uprising seeking independence from the oppressive Saljuqs. The聽Isma鈥榠lis聽thus seized control of several towns in Quhistan, which became another region, along with Rudbar, for their activities. In this way, in less than two years after the capture of聽Alamut, Hasan Sabbah had founded an independent territorial state for the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽in the midst of the聽Saljuq聽sultanate(sal峁璦na, pl. sal峁璦n膩t) An Arabic word derived from the root s-l-峁�; it is a political office created by the Seljuk dynasty (1038鈥�1194 CE), somewhat parallel to a kingdom in Western….

In 485 AH/1092 CE, major聽Saljuq聽expeditions were dispatched against the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽in both Rudbar and Quhistan, but these operations came to a halt later in the same year on the assassination of the all-powerful聽Saljuq聽vizier聽Nizam al-Mulk, followed by Sultan Malikshah鈥檚 death a few weeks later. Taking advantage of the prolonged disorder and the rivalries in the聽Saljuq聽camp after Malekshah鈥檚 demise, Hasan consolidated and extended his power in Rudbar, where he seized the strategically located fortress of Lamasar (Lanbasar) to the west of聽Alamut. The Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽now also captured a number of strongholds, including Girdkuh near Damgan, as well as in Arrajan, the border region between Kuzistan and聽FarsA province in southwestern Persia, the capital of which is Shiraz..

By this time, the revolt of the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽against the Saljuqs had already acquired its distinctive pattern and methods of struggle designed by Hasan himself in view of the decentralised nature of political and military power in the聽Saljuq聽sultanate. Hasan鈥檚 plan was to uproot the Turks one by one from their separate strongholds by sending instructions from聽Alamut聽to his followers in each locality. He is famed for his decision to use assassination as an effective technique of struggle against the decentralised聽Saljuq聽opposition with its vastly superior military strength. This policy soon became identified with the Nizari聽Isma鈥榠lis聽in an exaggerated manner, even though it had been adopted by many before them as well as their contemporaries. The actual Nizari assassinations of their prominent enemies were carried out by targeting key leaders and were never aimed at civilian populations. Invariably, they were countered by massacres of聽Isma鈥榠lis聽by the Saljuqs.

The dispute over the succession to the Fatimid Imam-caliph al-Mustansir, who died in 487 AH/1094 CE, led to a permanent schism, splitting the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽into rival Nizari and Musta鈥榣i factions. Hasan Sabbah, who was by then the undisputed leader of the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽and had already adopted an independent policy, supported the cause of聽Imam聽Nizar, Imam-caliph al-Mustansir鈥檚 eldest son and designated successor, who had nonetheless been denied the Fatimid聽caliphate. Recognizing聽Imam聽Nizar as his father鈥檚 successor to the Isma鈥榠li聽imamat, Hasan now severed his ties with the Fatimid regime and the Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榳补听headquarters in Cairo, which had transferred their own allegiance to聽Imam聽Nizar鈥檚 younger brother, appointing him to the Fatimid聽caliphate聽with the title of al-Musta鈥榣i bi鈥檒lah. Hasan Sabbah had now in effect founded an independent Nizari Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榳补, and his decision to support聽Imam聽Nizar鈥檚 cause was endorsed by all the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽of Persia and Iraq, who came to be known as the Nizariya.

From the early years of the 6th AH/12th CE century, Hasan began to send聽诲补鈥榠s from聽Alamut聽to Syria, an early Isma鈥榠li centre of activity, to propagate the Nizari聽诲补鈥榳补. As a result of the activities of these聽诲补鈥榠s, an expanding Nizari community soon emerged in Syria which eventually became the sole representation of聽Isma鈥榠lis聽there. However, almost half a century of continuous efforts were needed before the聽Nizaris聽could gain possession of a group of permanent strongholds in central Syria, which was affiliated to the Nizari state in Persia.

After聽Imam聽Nizar was killed in Cairo in 488 AH/1095 CE, the Nizari聽Isma鈥榠lis聽were left without an accessible聽imamIn general usage, a leader of prayers or religious leader. The Shi’i restrict the term to their spiritual leaders descended from 士Al墨 b. Ab墨 峁乴ib and the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima.. Indeed,聽Imam聽Nizar鈥檚 own name and caliphal title (al-Mustafa li-Din Allah) continued to be mentioned for almost seventy years after his death on coins struck at聽Alamut聽(see Miles, 1972, pp. 155-62). In the absence of a manifest聽imam, Hasan himself served as the head of the Nizari聽诲补鈥榳补听and state, with the rank of聽丑耻箩箩补听(chief representative of the hidden imam). The Nizari聽imam聽assumed authority four decades after Hasan鈥檚 own death (see Ivanow, 1933 [Haft bab-i Baba Sayyidna], p. 21; Tusi, 1950, text p. 148, tr. p. 173; Quhistani, 1959, text pp. 23, 43).

Outsiders from early on gained the impression that the movement of the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽led by Hasan Sabbah represented a new teaching, and it became designated as the 鈥榥ew preaching鈥� (al-诲补鈥榳补 al jadida) in contradistinction to the 鈥榦ld preaching鈥� (al-诲补鈥榳补 al-qadima) of the Fatimid聽Isma鈥榠lis. However, the 鈥榥ew preaching鈥� was no more than the reformulation of the established Shi鈥榠 doctrine of聽迟补鈥榣颈尘听(authoritative instruction). This doctrine was restated more vigorously by Hasan in a Persian treatise entitled聽Chahar fasl, 鈥楾he Four Chapters鈥� (Arabic:聽al Fusul al-arba鈥榓) which, although not extant, has been preserved fragmentarily by, amongst others, his contemporary Abu鈥檒-Fath Shahrastani (d. 548/1153), who may have had Isma鈥榠li leanings (see Shahrastani, 1968. II, pp. 195-98; idem, 1984, pp. 165, 167-70; Juwayni, 1912- 37, III, pp. 195-99; idem. 1958, II, pp. 671-73; Rashid聽al-Din, pp. 105-7; Kashani, pp. 142-43). In a series of four propositions, Hasan argued for the inadequacy of human reason in knowing God and for the necessity of an authoritative teacher (mu鈥榓llim-i sadiq) as the spiritual guide of men, who would be none other than the Isma鈥榠li聽imam聽of the time. Henceforth, the Persian聽Nizaris聽became known also as the聽罢补鈥榣颈尘颈测补. The anti-Isma鈥榠li polemics of the contemporary Sunni establishment, led by Muhammad Ghazali and endorsed by Nizam al-Mulk, were focused directly against this doctrine of ta鈥榣im, which served as the central teaching of the Nizari聽Isma鈥榠lis.

The fortunes of the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽continued to rise in Barkyaruq鈥檚 reign (487-98 AH/1094- 1105 CE), when they achieved new gains closer to the seat of聽Saljuq聽power in Isfahan, seizing the fortress of聽ShahdizThe name of a Nizari Ismaili fortress near Isfahan in the 13th century CE., also known as Dizkuh. Having grown weary of the general threat of the聽Isma鈥榠lis聽to聽Saljuq聽rule, Barkyaruq and Sanjar now agreed to check, in their respective territories, the rising power of the聽Isma鈥榠lis. This strategy was more effectively pursued, however, by Muhammad Tapar (498-511 AH/1105-18 CE) who, in 503 AH/1109 CE, initiated a major and prolonged campaign against聽Alamut聽itself. Hasan鈥檚 defence of聽Alamut聽during this period was a blow to the Saljuqs, who failed to take the fortress by assault or attrition despite their superior military power. By the time of Muhammad Tapar鈥檚 death, Saljuq-Isma鈥榠li relations had entered a new phase of stalemate, with the Persian聽Isma鈥榠lis聽successfully defending important territories, including mountain strongholds, villages and towns in Rudbar, Quhistan and Kumesh (Arabic: Qumis). Although Hasan Sabbah had failed to overcome the Saljuqs, he did succeed in founding both a state and the independent Nizari Isma鈥榠li聽诲补鈥榳补, which survived the downfall of the Nizari state.

An organiser and a political strategist of the highest calibre, Hasan Sabbah was at the same time a trained theologian. He led an austere life and is said to have observed the聽蝉丑补谤颈鈥榓听very strictly himself as well as imposing it on his Nizari community; equally strict with friend and foe, he had both his sons executed, one for alleged murder, the other on suspicion of drinking wine. He is also said to have sent his wife and daughters away permanently to Girdkuh, where they earned a living by spinning. The Persian historians relate that during all the thirty-four years that Hasan lived at聽Alamut, he never descended from the castle. Rashid聽al-Din聽(pp. 133-34) reports that he spent most of his time inside his personal quarters reading books, committing the teachings of the聽诲补鈥榳补听to writing and administering the affairs of his realm.

When he sensed that he was reaching the end of his life, Hasan summoned Kia Buzurg-Umid, his capable lieutenant at Lamasar, and designated him as his successor in聽Alamut. He died, after a brief illness, on 26 Rabi鈥� II 518 AH/12 June 1124 CE (or possibly twenty days earlier), and was buried near聽Alamut. Hasan Sabbah鈥檚 mausoleum was regularly visited by the Nizari聽Isma鈥榠lis聽until it was demolished by the Mongols in 654 AH/1256 CE.

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This is an edited version of an article that was originally published in聽, Vol. XII, Columbia University, New York, 1996. pp. 34- 37.